Why the Formation of Ionic Compounds Is Exothermic

Why the Formation of Ionic Compounds Is Exothermic Have you ever wondered why the formation of ionic compounds is exothermic? The quick answer is that the resulting ionic compound is more stable than the ions that formed it. The extra energy from the ions is released as heat when ionic bonds form. When more heat is released from a reaction than is needed for it to happen, the reaction is exothermic. Understand the Energy of Ionic Bonding Ionic bonds form between two atoms with a large electronegativity difference between each other. Typically, this is a reaction between metals and nonmetals. The atoms are so reactive because they do not have complete valence electron shells. In this type of bond, an electron from one atom is essentially donated to the other atom to fill its valence electron shell. The atom that loses its electron in the bond becomes more stable because donating the electron results in either a filled or half-filled valence shell.  The initial instability is so great for the alkali metals and alkaline earths that very little energy is required to remove the outer electron (or 2, for the alkaline earths) to form cations. The halogens, on the other hand, readily accept the electrons to form anions. While the anions are more stable than the atoms, its even better if the two types of elements can get together to solve their energy problem. This is where ionic bonding occurs. To really understand whats going on, consider the formation of sodium chloride (table salt) from sodium and chlorine. If you take sodium metal and chlorine gas, salt forms in a spectacularly exothermic reaction (as in, dont try this at home). The balanced ionic chemical equation is: 2 Na (s) Cl2 (g) → 2 NaCl (s) NaCl exists as a crystal lattice of sodium and chlorine ions, where the extra electron from a sodium atom fills in the hole needed to complete a chlorine atoms outer electron shell. Now, each atom has a complete octet of electrons. From an energy standpoint, this is a highly stable configuration. Examining the reaction more closely, you might get confused because: The loss of an electron from an element is always endothermic (because energy is needed to remove the electron from the atom. Na → Na 1 e- ΔH 496 kJ/mol While the gain of an electron by a nonmetal is usually exothermic (energy is released when the nonmetal gains a full octet). Cl 1 e- → Cl- ΔH -349 kJ/mol So, if you simply do the math, you can see forming NaCl from sodium and chlorine actually requires the addition of 147 kJ/mol in order to turn the atoms into reactive ions. Yet we know from observing the reaction, net energy is released. Whats happening? The answer is that the extra energy that makes the reaction exothermic is the lattice energy. The difference in the electrical charge between the sodium and chlorine ions causes them to be attracted to each other and move toward one another. Eventually, the oppositely charged ions form an ionic bond with each other. The most stable arrangement of all the ions is a crystal lattice. To break the NaCl lattice (the lattice energy) requires 788 kJ/mol: NaCl (s) → Na Cl- ΔHlattice 788 kJ/mol Forming the lattice reverses the sign on the enthalpy, so ΔH -788 kJ per mole. So, even though it take 147 kJ/mol to form the ions, much more energy is released by lattice formation. The net enthalpy change is -641 kJ/mol. Thus, the formation of the ionic bond is exothermic. The lattice energy also explains why ionic compounds tend to have extremely high melting points. Polyatomic ions form bonds in much the same way. The difference is that you consider the group of atoms that forms that cation and anion rather than each individual atom.

SAT Cost, ACT Cost, and How to Save Money

SAT Cost, ACT Cost, and How to Save Money SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips If you're deciding between taking the SAT and the ACT and you have a tight budget, this guide will help. We'll cover the registration costs, reporting costs, and how you can save money no matter what test you choose. All Registration Costs for the SAT and ACT (Updated for 2019-2020) Let's first look at the cost of registering for the test, and extra fees. Fee Type What is this? SAT Cost ACT Cost Registration Fee The normal fee for each administration of the test you register for $64.50 ($49.50 without essay) $67($50.50 without essay) Late Fee Charged if you register after the regular deadline but before the final late deadline $30 $30 Waitlist Fee Charged if you register after the late registration deadline and are seated on test day. $53 $53 (standby testing) Change Fee Charged if you change the test center, test date, or test type $30 $30 Question and Answers An optional service that sends you the test questions and correct answers (useful for seeing what mistakes you made) $18 $20 International Fees Charged additionally if you're taking the test outside of the United States $43 to $53 $99.50 Sources: College Board and ACT, Inc The costs between the SAT and ACT are similar for registrations for U.S. students. If your schools require the essay section, taking the SAT saves you $1 per test. Clearly both tests charge through the nose for extra fees, punishing lack of planning ahead. As we'll cover below, planning early can represent a huge cost savings to you. All Reporting Costs for the SAT and ACT Once you take the test, you'll have to send your test scores to colleges. Each college you apply to will require its own SAT or ACT score report. If you apply to 12 colleges, you'll need to send 12 score reports. This is where the policies for the SAT and ACT really differ. Fee Type What is this? SAT ACT Free Score Reports The number of free reports you get when registering for the test 4 free reports, within 9 days after test 4 free reports, by the Thursday after the test Cost per School Charged for each report you send to a school outside of your free reports. $12 per school $13.00 per test per school Rush reporting Expedited sending of score reports $31 per school $16.50 per test per school Sources: College Board and ACT, Inc. Here's an elaboration. When you take the SAT or ACT, both tests allow you to send your scores to four schools for free. You will specify these four schools when registering for the test. The SAT gives you nine days after the test to decide those four schools, while the ACT only gives you six days. Outside of the free reports, both tests will charge you for sending score reports. This can happen if you're too late in specifying your free reports, or if you exceed the four free reports per test. The SAT and the ACT differ here in a significant way. The SAT can send all your College Board test scores to a school in a single report. This includes all SAT and SAT Subject Test administrations. The ACT, however, requires $13.00 per test per school. For example, if your school uses 'Superscoring', you might want to send two or three tests to combine the highest score.This can really rack up the cost really quickly.For example, if you're applying to ten colleges and you want to send three test scores, this will mean $13 x 10 x 3 = $390, just to send your scores to schools. All this money starts adding up. It pays to be proactive and to plan ahead. Here are four strategies to save as much money as possible on the SAT and ACT. 5 Tips to Save Money on the SAT and ACT If you're on a budget, you can save a lot of money by planning ahead. Here are important ways to get money back. #1: Apply for a Fee Waiver If You Qualify Both the College Board and the ACT know that low-income families find it difficult to pay for these expensive tests. Applying for a fee waiver can save you hundreds of dollars. With a fee waiver, both tests give you free registration for tests and free score reports. How do you qualify for a fee waiver? You qualify if any of the below is true: You're enrolled in or eligible for the federal Free and Reduced Price Lunch program You're enrolled in a federal, state, or local program that aids students from low-income families (like Upward Bound) Your family receives public assistance You live in public housing, a foster home, or are homeless. Your household income level falls below USDA levels for Reduced Price lunches To get a fee waiver, you MUST go through your school counselor. You cannot apply directly through the College Board or ACT, Inc. This takes time, so make sure you do this well before you plan to register for the test. Contact your school counselor as soon as possible if you qualify for a fee waiver. #2: Register Early The late fee for registration is around half the test of the cost itself, causing a 50% increase in the test cost if you're late to register. If you have a test date set in mind, register months in advance so you don't forget. Make sure you get a confirmation by e-mail so you have no surprises come test day. Even worse than paying the late fee is missing the test date registration altogether. If you've been prepping for a specific date, this will cause you to lose momentum from your test prep and lower your score. #3: Use the FREEScore Reports Both the SAT and ACT give you free score reports to send to schools of your choosing. Make sure you specify schools before registration so you don't forget. Once the ACT test date passes, you won't be able to specify any more colleges to receive your test scores. The only reason you may want to not specify a college for the free score report is if you're not sure you're going to do better, and you want to make sure the college receives only your top scores. For all other cases, send it to colleges that are on your application list. #4: Self-Report Scores When Possible In an attempt to lower the barrier to applying even further, some of the top schools in the country now allow students to self-report their SAT and ACT scores on their applications; you'll only have to submit official SAT/ACT score reports if you're accepted. Prestigious national universities that allow self-reporting of SAT/ACT scores include Stanford, Columbia, Johns Hopkins, Northwestern, Caltech, Rice, WashU in St. Louis, and Emory. Most of the top liberal arts colleges also have adopted this policy, including Williams, Amherst, Wellesley, Swarthmore, Middlebury, and Pomona. For all schools allowing self-reported SAT/ACT scores, make sure to check their policy on superscoring/score choice so that you're maximizing your standardized testing profile. Also, while this should go without saying, don't lie when self-reporting your SAT/ACT scores on your application. Don't write a score you plan to get on the February ACT or March SAT before admissions decisions go out (unless the school you're applying to accepts February ACT scores) and don't lie about doing better than you did. This will most likely result in your admission being rescinded not just because you didn't do as well as you said you did, but because you lied; institutions of higher learning generally aren't super keen to welcome academically dishonest students into their community. #5: Use Your SAT/ACT Score to Qualify for Scholarships Many states and schools have scholarships where the major qualification is your SAT/ACT score. By doing well on the test, you can make back well more than it cost to take the test. Take the time to research these scholarships and apply for them if you qualify. What's Next? Now that you know how much the SAT and ACT cost, let's read more resources to learn more about these tests. Want a super high SAT score or ACT score? I teach you how to get a perfect SAT/ACT score, based on my own experiences. What are good ACT scores or good SAT scoresfor college? Is the SAT or ACT easier? Find out which you should take. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Relationship between nurse staffing, quality of nursing care and Research Paper

Relationship between nurse staffing, quality of nursing care and outcome in intensive care unit - Research Paper Example After a comparison was done in five countries that are considered to be developed, only 40% of the nurses agreed to have enough registered nurses (Hyun Cho et al., 2009). In order for a hospital to perform well, they need to have enough registered nurses. Hospitals that have enough nurses are associated with positive patient and nurse outcomes. The paper will give a review of the relationship between nurse staffing, quality of nursing care, and outcome in the intensive care unit. Among the different nursing care units in hospitals, the intensive care unit needs to have the highest number of nurses. The intensive care unit receives patients who are seriously ill and need to be watched closely. The nurses in charge of the ICU have to provide quality services as well as safe nursing interventions without delay so as to save life. For developed countries like the United State, the ratio of nurse in the ICU to a patient is 1 – 2 patients per nurse (Hyun Cho et al., 2009). The staff ing of nurses in the ICU influences the number of patients who survive at the end of the day. Hospitals with fewer nurses assigned in the ICU are probably over worked and end up having patients admitted for long with more complications. Korea is said to have inadequate staffing in hospital. Research was carried out in Korea, which included 200 hospital showed that only a small fraction of 5%, of the hospitals met the required ratio of a patient to nurse of two patients per nurse (Hyun Cho et al., 2009). The lack of nurses has caused the family members of the offer services to their patient. In response to the shortage of nurses in Korea, the country came up with a policy meant to improve nurse staffing. According to the policy, nurse staffing is a priority and the National Health Insurance should increase inpatient nursing fee especially to hospitals with the highest number of registered nursing staffing. This policy by the Korean government was aimed at preventing hospitals from le aving a patient under the care of their family members. In addition, the policy aims at improving the quality of nursing care being offered in Korea. The policy is meant, however, for general wards, such as the medical surgical and units excluding the ICU. Various methods were used to measure nurse staffing and evaluate staffing adequacy. The common methods used are the nurse’s perceptions of staffing adequacy and the quantitative objective using empirical data, such as nurse to patient ratio. The study aims at examining the relationship between nurses staffing and the quality of nursing care, burn out, and job dissatisfaction among ICU nurses in Korea. The study in Korea involved all the nurses working in the ICU of the 22 hospitals. The hospitals in the study were general ones that provide either secondary or tertiary care. The measures in the study were composed of the nurse, ICU, and the hospital characteristics. Hospital characteristics include the level of care, its own ership, location, and the size. The ICU characteristics include the unit specialist, such medical surgery and pediatrics, the number beds in the ICU unit, and the level of nurse staffing (Hyun Cho et al., 2009). During the study, the number of nurses was compared to the number of patients they were attending. On the other hand, the nursing information included the nurses ICU specialty, sex, age, education, marital status, among other import things. The quality of service portrayed by the nurses was

Multiprocessing Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Multiprocessing - Assignment Example The symmetrical architecture allows the idle processor to process the information and does not allow the busy processor to process the information or task. Symmetrical multiprocessing architecture is often known to be rapid and most commonly utilized architecture regarding the multiprocessing. If one processor in the symmetrical multiprocessing architecture fails the other processors remain intact and the processing continues (Hagersten & Hill, 2001). Master slave multiprocessing architecture makes one of the processor to dominate all the other processors. The information is first received by the master processor that assigns the task to the other processor or resend the information to the idle processor. The master slave multiprocessing architecture is a bit more complex as compared to the symmetrical architecture. If the master processor fails, the entire processing system fails. All tasks are assigned by the master processor to the other processors in the master slave processing architecture (Lyonnard, Yoo, Baghdadi & Jerraya, 2001). In the symmetrical multiprocessing architecture, the Random Access Memory (RAM) remains the same for all the processors in the architecture. The RAM remains dedicated to one processor at one time, which is involved on the processing phenomenon. The system maintains the priority of certain tasks makes the RAM dedicated to the most valued and important tasks. In the similar manner all the processors in the symmetrical multiprocessing architecture share the memory, input and output devices, interrupts systems and other relevant system resources (Lyonnard, Yoo, Baghdadi & Jerraya, 2001). On the other hand, in the master slave multiprocessing architecture, inputs and outputs, memory, etc is directly controlled by the master processor. Common examples of the symmetrical multiprocessing architectures are the dual core processors made by Intel and other companies (Hagersten & Hill, 2001). Hyper threading is often associated

History Of Black Males In American Society Essay -- African-American R

History Of Black Males In American Society The black community have always been suppressed and oppressed by the dominant and powerful white members of society. The historical social order of Americans meant that traditionally positions of power have been held by a very exclusive group of people; members of this group are stereotypically middle class, middle aged, white males with nuclear families. This Caucasian dominance is well documented throughout history and is epitomized by the slavery of African, and Caribbean Negroes in America by white settlers and pilgrims, which continued for many hundreds of years. This has led to much resentment from the black community towards white people, as it is still very difficult for someone of an ethnic minority heritage to gain a position of any real authority or significance within the USA. Things have undoubtedly improved in America but a balance of equality has still not been achieved, evidenced today by Barack Obama becoming the first Black man to achieve election into the USAsenate (the highest form of government in the American administration apart from the cabinet). Whilst this demonstrates that society is becoming more equality based in the US, it also shows that out of 255 senate seats, a black person holds only one of them. This illustrates that American society favours those of white origin, as they do not trust black people in positions of power or importance. The situation with regards to racism has changed dramatically over the past fifty years; this is largely down to the work of black activists such as Dr Martin Luther King and Malcolm X. Another individual who had a ... ...ssing over $225 million each, while the motion picture biography of Malcolm X, one of the most important cultural icons for black people, and one of the most influential figures in the change of racial tolerance and ultimately, world society grossed just $48 million. American society is still intolerant of black people and in film, more often then not, cast the African-Americans in the role of the minstrel. This has been noted by black people and have now taken to playing up to the role by creating spoof films such as the 'Scary Movie' trilogy which grossed over $500 million in total. This shows that whilst society in America has not changed much, except that white people pretend to be less prejudiced, black people have decided to take control and use their own societal positions to take advantage of white America.

In Defense of Pit Bulls

Kylie Colyer In Defense of Pit bulls Pit bulls are among the most misunderstood and maligned (badmouthed) breed of dogs. Over the years, the media has been portraying them in a negative light. This kind of portrayal has largely been due to the misconceptions and myths associated with pit bulls. Prior to this negative depiction of pit bulls, they were considered the â€Å"perfect nanny dog† by children (Holland). They were seen as friendly in nature, stable, loyal as well as non-aggressive to children and adults. However, this has since changed, especially after 1990s when the media inappropriately started portraying pit bulls as bloodthirsty monsters that are more dangerous and harmful compared to other dog breeds (Coile). As a result of this false portrayal, parents and children have become increasingly afraid of them. They recoil in horror upon spotting one of them. Some pull their children closer with the intention of protecting them from what they assume are prowling werewolves (Lam). As this paper will demonstrate, this should not be the case. It will argue in defense of pit bulls by showing that they are still the loyal, stable, non-aggressive and friendly breeds of dog. Those against pit bulls and portraying them in bad light argue that they have features that make them inherently dangerous and vicious. For example, some people state that pit bull breeds have locking jaws. They also say that they are overly aggressive towards human beings. It is also their view that pit bulls are dangerous to adopt, especially if one has no known history and parentage from a shelter or rescue is not known (Dickey). There is also a widespread myth that pit bulls are preferred by people with irresponsible breeding habits; effectively stating that pit bulls attract the most irresponsible and worst form of dog owners (Marrs). All these perceptions and myths have only served to bad-mouth pit bulls and to make them unattractive to the majority of people in our society. They have also led to high rates of abandonment, torture and abuse of this breed of dogs compared to any other breeds (Landau). The negative portrayal of pit bulls is also as a result of some people using them as fighting dogs. They gained this bad reputation as early as 1066 AD during the England's Norman Conquest when they would be used as â€Å"bullenbeissers†, a term which means â€Å"bull biter† (Coile). During this time, they were trained to latch onto the nose of bulls and also how not to let go of an animal until it is subdued. The use of pit bulls was considered as the only way through which human beings would regain control after bulls have become agitated. Following the ban of bull-baiting in the 19th century, the popularity of dog fighting increased, especially among those who were involved in the quasi-illegal activities and underground businesses in the United Kingdom (Landau). The British immigrants to the United States brought this game into the country, and they too utilized pit bulls for this purpose. It is for this reason that pit bulls have continued bad reputation over the years. However, what is rarely mentioned is the fact that they were used as fighting dogs due to their extreme loyalty to their human owners (Lam). While the perceptions and myths above about pit bulls may appear to be valid, facts and scientific evidence provide otherwise. According to a study conducted by the American Veterinary Medicine Association, there is no evidence showing that pit bulls are disproportionately dangerous (Holland). It has also been established that this breed of dog does not have locking jaws; they do not have special enzymes or mechanism allowing them to lock jaws. A comparison of their skulls to that of other breeds of dogs shows that they share general bone structure and have similar characteristics. It is their determination that when biting down on something and not easily releasing makes them appear like they have locking jaws (Coile). The misconception that pit bulls are inherently vicious can also be refuted using facts. It should first be noted that this myth is a stereotype that is simply aimed at the entire breed (Landau). When evaluated on own merit rather than the breed, one can easily find out that a pit bull is truly a good dog that is inherently friendly to humans and other dogs. The argument that pit bulls are aggressive towards humans and other dogs is unfounded (Marrs). Perhaps the way pit bulls are raised or trained make them an aggressive breed.The myths and misconceptions associated with pit bulls have created an impression that their adoption is dangerous, especially if they have unknown parentage and history. This myth is inappropriate because it fails to acknowledge that, just like humans, each dog ought to be judged by their own behavior and personality (Marrs). It also fails to recognize that pit bulls that are portraying negative behaviors and personalities are not doing so because of their nature but because of other factors. These factors include having been horribly neglected and abused in the past or having been forced to fight (Landau). Pit bulls that have been rescued and raised properly tend to show proper temperament and behavior towards human beings. This explanation helps to address the other false portrayal about pit bulls that adopting a pit bull puppy is better than an adult one. Regardless of whether someone adopts a puppy or an adult one, the most important thing is how one treats a pit bull. One should nurture it in such a manner that enables it to develop desirable and positive traits (Dickey). From the above discussion, it is evident that pit bulls are loyal, stable, non-aggressive and friendly breeds of dogs. As has been noted, the myths and misconceptions that have been kept alive over the years regarding pit bulls and which have portrayed them in bad light are unfounded. There is no scientific evidence to show that those myths are actually natural to pit bulls. In fact, some of the reasons why pit bulls gained bad reputation such as being used as fighting dogs are anchored on their positive trait of being loyal to human owners. Therefore, these are the traits that should be portrayed and not some myths about them, It is also clear that humans have a role in making sure that pit bulls are being treated like other breeds of dogs so that they develop traits and personalities that are desirable and which can help them to sustain their loyal, stable, non-aggressive and friendly nature. Works CitedCoile, D C. Pit Bulls for Dummies. New York, NY: Hungry Minds, 2011.Dickey, Bronwen. Pit Bull: The Battle Over an American Icon. NY: A.A. Knopf, 2016.Holland, Joshua. In Defense of the Pit Bull.† 02 May, 2013, Salon TV. https://www.salon.com/2013/02/05/in_defense_of_the_pitbull_partner/ Accessed 23 Mar, 2018.Lam, Stephanie. Pit Bulls. Hauppage, N.Y: Barron's, 2012. Landau, Elaine. Pit Bulls Are the Best!Minneapolis: Lerner Publications Co, 2011.Marrs, Megan. â€Å"In Defense of Pit Bulls: Monsters or Misunderstood [Infographic].† 2018, Lifehack. ; https://www.lifehack.org/302240/defense-pit-bulls-monsters-misunderstood-infographic; Accessed 23 Mar, 2018.

Social Welfare Vs. The Market - 958 Words

There are many reasons why individuals live in poverty. Such as drug addiction, lack of education, Unaffordable housing, criminal record, and alcohol addiction. These issues cripple our country continuously. â€Å"Poverty is not anyone persons decision. Parents do not wake up one day and just decide not to feed their family or pay bills. Poverty is a state when individual’s essential needs are not satisfied, Such as healthcare, education, food, and housing which are the main components to survive everyday life.† Bradley, R. H., Corwyn, R. F. (2002). Low income is defined as working families who earning twice as less as the federal poverty line. â€Å"The Studies have shown that poverty in the United States is by far one of the biggest issues in the country.† Poverty in the United States, Social Welfare vs the Market - (2011, May) According to the national center for children in poverty† more than 16 million children are living in low-income or poverty in the United States. Twenty-two percent of families are living below the federal poverty level. The stress of poverty can take both a psychological and physical toll on children and adults. Children that grow up in poverty are more susceptible to violence.† Children that live in poverty have a lot to deal with issues that the average child should know nothing about. Many children that grow up in poverty or live low-income life styles often suffer from mental issues, such as saver depression and becoming anti-social. 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